The Gems of West African & South Asian Medieval Civilizations: The Great Oyo Empire of Yorubaland (West Africa) and The Honorable Sikh Empire (South Asia)
- calmandstrong
- 13 hours ago
- 51 min read
Updated: 4 hours ago
Explore the many similarities of the Great Oyo (Yoruba) Empire and The Honorable Sikh Empire before both nations were conquered and colonized by the British Empire.
Image I (Left): 17. Alaafin (i.e., Emperor) of Oyo, Oba Adeniran Adeyemi II in ceremonial regalia surrounded by members of his family. Photo: R. Mauny, 1948-49, IFAN.
The population of the Yoruba people is variously estimated between 30 to 40 million people and may be the largest single African ethnic group or tribe, or nationality in Africa. The country of the Yoruba people, Yorubaland, was present-day Southwest Nigeria, a smaller part of Benin Republic, and still a smaller part of Togo Republic. The Yoruba people were also forcefully dispersed throughout different regions of the American continent via the European Transatlantic slave trade.
Image II (Right): Emperor Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire
Sikhism is one of the least known religions, which is followed by some 25 to 30 million people. The Sikhs are an ethnoreligious group, which means they share the same ethnicity and the same faith, and found in the present-day state of Punjab, which is parts of Pakistan and Northwestern India.
West and Central Africa and the Indian Subcontinent is the home to some of my favorite ancient and medieval civilizations.
The Subregion of West and Central Africa: West Africa contains a remarkable diversity of ethnic groups or tribes, and can be divided into two zones, the Sudanic savanna and the Guinea Coast. Central and Southwest Africa may be considered as an eastern extension of West Africa because in the north are the savannas of Chad, the Central African Republic, Sudan, and South Sudan, stretching to the Nile River, and in the south is the largely forested area of the Congo River basin.
The Beautiful Subregion of West and Central Africa
My top four ancient and medieval civilizations from West and Central Africa are:
Yorubaland: Present-day Southwest Nigeria, a smaller part of Benin Republic, and still a smaller part of Togo Republic (West Africa)
The Great Benin Empire: Present-day Southern Nigeria. Great Benin’s reach extended westward towards present-day Ghana and eastward to present-day Cameroon (West Africa)
The Songhai Empire: Parts of present-day Mali, Niger, Northern Nigeria, Mauretania, Senegal, The Gambia, and Guinea (West Africa)
The Kongo Empire: Present-day Congo, as far north as present-day Gabon, and as far south as present-day Angola (Central and Southwest Africa)
The Indian Subcontinent: The Indian Subcontinent has a rich history as one of the earliest and extensive civilizations. The Indian Subcontinent consists of at least seven countries, which are India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Some consider Afghanistan to be part of the Indian Subcontinent. From a geographical perspective, there is a general understanding that the Indian Subcontinent consists of the peninsular part of India, south of the Himalayas, on the Indian tectonic plate that is separate from the rest of Asia. Politically and culturally, the countries of the Indian Subcontinent are very much one community. The people of the Indian Subcontinent have a shared ethnic, linguistic, cultural, and a historical tie.
Most anthropologists recognize Africoid people as being the original inhabitants of India. The Africoid people were followed by the Australoid people, and later an influx of Mediterranean people, then the Mongoloid people, and lastly, the Aryan people. All people in India can trace their heritage to two genetic groups, which are the ancestral North Indian group originally from the Near East and the Caucasus region, and the South Indian group that was more closely related to people of the Sudan region of East Africa. Due to mixing, during the modern era, everyone in India has DNA from both groups and is found to be thorough even among the most isolated populations in India.
The Beautiful Indian Subcontinent
My top four ancient and medieval civilizations from the Indian Subcontinent are:
The Indus Valley Civilization: Present-day Pakistan and Western India (South Asia)
The Sikh Empire: Parts of present-day Pakistan and Northwestern India (South Asia)
The Anuradhapura Kingdom: Present-day North and Central Sri Lanka (South Asia)
The Maurya Empire: Present-day Northern and Central India, and parts of Iran (South Asia)
The Rise & Fall of the Great Oyo Empire of Yorubaland
The Oyo Empire consisted of parts of present-day Southwest Nigeria, Benin Republic and Togo Republic.
“The city of Oyo-Ile, capital of the Old Oyo Empire, was, in the 18th century, the largest, the most heavily populated, the politically most powerful and most influential, the commercially richest and most widely influential, and altogether the most prestigious city in all of Black Africa.”
– Dr. Stephen Adebanji Akintoye, author of The Good News
According to Yoruba traditions, the founder of the Oyo Kingdom (i.e., Oyo-Ile) was Prince Oranmiyan, one of the youngest grandsons of King Oduduwa of the Ife Kingdom (i.e., Ile-Ife). Popular Yoruba traditions and legends elevated Oduduwa as the father of the Yoruba race, and all people of the world because from the very beginning of creation, he was crowned as the first human to walk the Earth, the progenitor of the Yoruba race. The Yoruba have some of the most remarkable graphic myths of creation and of origins. For example, when the whole surface of the Earth was a watery mass, Olodumare (also known as “Olorun,” “king of heaven” or “God”) sent down heavenly beings known as “Orishas” to Earth to create solid land, plant and animal life. They brought with them one chicken and one palm nut, and they came down on a chain and landed on the spot that is now known as Ife, which is in the heart of Yorubaland (present-day central region of Southwest Nigeria. The country of Yorubaland consists of present-day Southwest Nigeria, a smaller part of Benin Republic, and still a smaller part of Togo Republic).
The Orishas poured the Earth onto the water, thus creating a small piece of solid land. They then set the chicken on the land, and when the chicken scratched and pecked the land, it spread around the world, and this was how all the continents and islands of the world came into existence. The Orishas or “heavenly beings” sowed the palm nut, and it sprouted and grew as the beginning of plant life in the world. The Orishas themselves became the progenitors of humanity. The place where all this began was Ife, “the source of the spreading.” The Yoruba people believe that they are the first race of humans, and that all human life and civilization originated in Yorubaland.
Some key players of the Ife Kingdom like Oduduwa and Obatala were not mythical, or heavenly beings, but real humans who played significant roles in a great era of Yoruba history.
Figure 2.5. Formative Period minimalist naturalistic figures in Èsìẹ̀ (left, H. 82 cm) and Ilè-Ifẹ̀ (right, H. 103 cm)
Human figures in stone sculptures, executed in a “minimalist-realist” style were found in Ife, and these granite sculptures are associated with political leaders of the Late Formative Period (650-1050 AD) of the Ife Kingdom, such as Ọbatálá, Orelứere, and ĺjứgbẹ̀. The figures project the impression of leaders with “calm and strong” personalities.
“The sculptures identify these individuals as the embodiment of power, wisdom, knowledge, honor, authority, and privilege in the society. In the oral traditions, they are celebrated for their mastery of the intricacies of governance and social order.”
– Dr. Akinwumi Ogundiran, author of The Yoruba: A New History
The Ife settlements turned into a kingdom during the 9th century, but the Ife Kingdom became a powerful and influential empire from the 10th to the 15th century, with its most proud and developed client states being Oyo (a northern Yoruba kingdom of the Ife Empire), Great Benin (Edo, a southern kingdom of the Ife Empire), and Ilesa (a central Yoruba kingdom that rose and became a dominate power in the region after the fall of the Ife Empire).
The Great Benin Empire (Great Benin) was founded by the Edo people, who are Yorubaland’s neighbors to the southeast. When Great Benin was ruled by ancient rulers known as the Ogiso, the Edo Kingdom plunged into disorder. Some Edo leaders sent a message to the ruler of the Ife Kingdom, possibly King Oduduwa, and the Edo messengers urged the king of Ife to send help to bring order to their kingdom. King Oduduwa responded by sending Prince Oranmiyan, one of his youngest grandsons and the foremost warrior prince that the Ife Kingdom produced. On arrival, Oranmiyan was welcomed by some Edo leaders but was resisted by others. He suppressed the resistance and then settled down and established order and a strong monarchy, known as the “Oba Dynasty.” After some years, Oranmiyan decided to leave, saying Great Benin should be ruled by an indigenous Edo prince. So, he installed one of his sons from one of his Edo wives on the throne, Eweka I. Eweka, the “son of the soil” and representative of the Yoruba-Edo world not only unified his kingdom, but transformed Great Benin into a power that stunned the world, because Great Benin was one of the most powerful medieval nations on the shores of West Africa.
Yoruba traditions confirm these Edo traditions and add that not long after returning to the Ife Kingdom as a hero, Oranmiyan set out again, but this time northwards because he desired to found a kingdom of his own like many of his cousins had already done. He eventually found a suitable spot to settle, just south of the Niger Valley, an area where small Oyo settlements existed interspersed with a scatter of small settlements by other African ethnic groups or tribes known as the Bariba and Nupe people. Prince Oranmiyan unified some of the settlements in the area and established his kingdom, Oyo-Ile. The title of the kings of the Oyo Kingdom became known as the “Alaafin.” Some years after establishing the Oyo Kingdom, Oranmiyan returned to the Ife Kingdom, leaving his sons, Ajaka and Sango to rule the Oyo Kingdom.
When the Ife Empire fell during the 15th century, its most powerful client states, such as the Great Benin Kingdom and the Oyo Kingdom became more dominate than Ife economically, politically, and militarily. The Great Benin Kingdom and the Oyo Kingdom were two of the Ife Empire’s greatest anchors. The Ife Empire is a parent state of the Oyo Kingdom, and a related state of the Great Benin Kingdom. According to Dr. Walter Rodney, author of How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, the Oyo and Great Benin Empires are listed as some of the most outstanding representatives of African development up to the eve of the arrival of Europeans reaching the west African coast during the 15th century.
“Politico-military development in Africa from 1500 to 1885 meant that African social collectives had become more capable of defending the interests of their members, as opposed to the interests of the people outside the given community. It also meant that the individual in a politically mature and militarily strong state would be free from the external threat of physical removal. He would have more opportunities to apply his own skill in fields as diverse as minstrelsy and bronze-working, under the protection of the state. He could also use his creativity and inventiveness to refine the religion of his people, or to work out a more manageable constitution, or to contribute to new techniques of war, or to advance agriculture and trade. Of course, it is also true that the benefits of all such contributions went mainly to a small section of African society, both within and without the zone of slaving.” – Dr. Walter Rodney
The Oyo Kingdom is regarded in Yoruba traditions as one of the youngest of the earlier Yoruba kingdoms. The Oyo Kingdom was founded during the late 12th or early 13th century, but by the 17th century, the Oyo Kingdom became the greatest of all Yoruba kingdoms, because it was richer, stronger, and territorially much larger than other Yoruba kingdoms. By the 18th century, Katunga was the capital of the Oyo Kingdom, and when the Oyo Kingdom became the Great Oyo Empire, the empire comprised most of northern and western Yorubaland, and some territories of non-Yoruba peoples like the Nupe, Bariba, and Aja peoples.
The region of the Oyo Kingdom was one of the most favorable for agriculture in West Africa. This was the Yoruba savannah grasslands or savannah low woodland, gently undulating, with occasional low hills and rock outcrops. Its high points formed a watershed territory from which streams flowed either south of the Osun and other south-flowing rivers, or north to the Niger River, making the whole Oyo Kingdom a well-watered region because its soils were among the most fertile in Yorubaland. Also, very prosperous farming in these circumstances made for rapid population increases in the Oyo Kingdom and surrounding areas. Scholars have estimated that at the peak of the growth of the Ife Kingdom by the 13th or 14th century was probably about 70,000. The Oyo Kingdom population of 1800 was probably twice the number at 140,000, and some other Oyo towns like Ikoyi, Igbon, Iresha, and Igboho ranked among the largest in Yorubaland.
The Oyo Kingdom was largely open grassland, and all the Yoruba and Aja kingdoms to the west of Oyo greatly assisted the growth of the empire. Oyo employed horses in the open grasslands, and the kingdom came to control far-flung communications, established far-flung administrative and commercial networks, and sent armies to subdue and control very distant lands. By being some distance inland from the coast, Oyo concentrated on relations with the hinterland, thereby connecting with the Western Sudanic trading zone. It was from the north that Oyo got the horses which made its armies feared and respected. When Oyo came to control the importation of horses from beyond the Niger River, like from the countries of Hausaland and the Kanem-Bornu Empire, this became a factor that contributed most of Oyo’s military superiority. During the 18th century, armies of the Alaafin of Oyo were pushing far westwards beyond the Aja Kingdom, defeating at least one army of the warlike Asante Kingdom in parts of present-day Togo Republic.
At the peak of the Oyo Empire’s power, its officials spread out from the Nupe Kingdom on the Middle Niger River all the way southwestwards to the coast of present-day Lagos State of Nigeria and Benin Republic and Togo Republic. The Oyo Kingdom was in an important region, because the most important trade routes involved the Middle Niger River. It dominated most of the trade between Yorubaland, the Aja Kingdom and much of West Africa south of the Niger River on one side, and the trans-Niger countries, the Sahara and the Mediterranean world on the other. This was an enormous source of wealth for the kingdom and for its citizens. The Oyo Empire was the largest ever in the history of the tropical forests and grasslands of West Africa south of the Niger River.
Repercussions from the Fall of the Ife Empire
The internal and external sources provoked the instability that engulfed the region of present-day Southwest and Southern Nigeria early in the 15th century, which was where the Ife Empire was located. The major internal sources of instability played a major role in the collapse of the Ife Kingdom’s (i.e., capital of the Ife Empire) economy and what appears to be a domestic political crisis in the “city of daybreak.” The collapse of the Ife Empire had a stormy effect on the client states who were integrated into Ife’s commercial and political orbits. These external factors included episodes of severe drought at the subcontinental level; outbursts of epidemic diseases at the regional level; political conflicts across the Western Sudan between ca. 1375 and 1600; relentless attacks from the Nupe cavalrymen from ca. 1450 through 1560; and the opening of the Yoruba coastland from intercontinental trade in the last quarter of the 15th century. There were signs of trouble during the late 14th century in the Ife Empire, but they became more noticeable in the early 15th century following the death of King Obolufon II, who was the last great king of the Classical period of the Ife Empire.
The Nupe cavalrymen gained the upper hand over their more numerous Yoruba neighbors. Since horse breeding was not effective in the Nupe homeland because of trypanosomiasis infections, the Nupe militarist leaders had to use imported horses to acquire more captives to replenish their equine supply from the Central Sudan. The goal of the Nupe was to plunder, capture, and enslave, and not towards establishing political dominions or controlling trade routes. The Nupe were divided into several political principalities in the late 15th century, with several independent units of cavalry led by warlords who planned and initiated invasions into Yorubaland. This process reached its peak sometime between 1525 and 1535 when Tsoede supposedly completed the task of political centralization in Nupeland. Nupe oral traditions suggest that Tsoede ruled the north central and northeast regions of Yorubaland. In contrast, the Yoruba oral traditions claim that Nupe militarists repeatedly raided those areas for captives between the mid-15th and mid-16th century.
The droughts of the 15th and 16th centuries in Yorubaland aided the Nupe incursions into Yorubaland, and the dry conditions extended the boundaries of the savanna southward, thinning out the rain forest and creating a more open landscape. As a result, the Nupe cavalrymen were able to reach areas that would have been impenetrable in the proceeding centuries. The size of the cavalry that the Yoruba Owu, and, later, the Yoruba Oyo had used in their warfare paled in comparison to the Nupe, due to the number of horses that the Nupe militarists employed. This was also the first time that massive enslavement had been the purpose of those cavalry attacks, because never had a group of attackers ravaged such a vast landscape that the Nupe militarists did in North and Central Yorubaland, because it lasted for at least four centuries.
The Nupe attacks marked the first regional offensive against the Yoruba community of practice as a group. The Yoruba kingdoms who felt the brunt of these devastating attacks were Oyo, Igbomina, Okun, and Ekiti. These attacks created the longest unrest that Yorubaland has ever faced, and Yorubaland’s political efficacy was tested. For many decades, there was no effective coordinated response in Yorubaland to respond to the Nupe invaders. For example, the Yoruba kingdoms of Okun, Igbomina, and Ekiti was too fragmented and weak to put up any serious resistance, although they did not give up. The Edo kingdom of Great Benin certainly clashed with the Nupe cavalrymen on and off around the Yoruba Ekiti Kingdom between ca. 1440 and 1550 as part of the strategy of protecting its commercial interests. But it was the Nupe military assaults on Oyo and the subsequent evacuation of Oyo’s capital sometime in the last decade of the 15th century that laid the groundwork for a coordinated effort to finally put an end to the Nupe menace and drive them completely out of Yorubaland.
According to a Yoruba maxim on the art of war:
“Retreat and offensive strategies are the hallmark of bravery, a valiant warrior who does not know when to retreat or attack will die prematurely on the battlefield.”
The Origins of the War Machine of the Great Oyo Empire
The Yoruba Oyo followed this axiom and realized that they lacked the military hardware to successfully confront the mounted forces of the Nupe. Humiliated but defiant, the Alaafin of Oyo and his chieftains retreated and began planning the Oyo comeback from exile. In the wake of the evacuation of Oyo, Alaafin Onigbogi sought refuge in the Ibariba Kingdom. However, the successor Ofinran founded a temporary capital further south in Igboho, in Yorubaland. It was from here that he and his chieftains began to rebuild the manpower and resources needed to defeat the Nupe. Inspired by the Yoruba spirit and nationalism, the urgent drive to avenge the humiliation of their ancestors, and an unalloyed commitment to a more secure future, the efforts to repel the Nupe from Northern Yorubaland preoccupied the reign of five Alaafins in Igboho, and they were:
Ofinran
Egungunoju
Orompoto
Ajiboyede
Abipa
From their base in Igboho, the Oyo kings built one the largest regional and intercultural military coalitions that West Africa has ever produced and witnessed. The coalition included the Ibariba (African ethnic group or tribe) people and kingdom, and other people from different African ethnic groups or tribes such as the Wasangari, Wangarawa, Djerma (Songhai subgroup), and Mossi. To start, the initial sojourn of the Oyo court to the Ibariba Kingdom was not in vain, because in Ibariba the Oyo found a ready, trusted, and committed ally. Both Oyo and Ibariba had a common interest, due to the Oyo being displaced from their ancestral home, and the Ibariba were being squeezed between the imperialist Songhai expansionists from the north and the Nupe marauders from the east. So, Oyo had the same concern as the Ibariba, which was to remove the Nupe thorn from their flesh.
The Oyo and Ibariba leaders began to pool their military sources together, in men, weaponry, and tactics. With Igboho as their base, the Oyo recruited several Ibariba itinerant hunters and militia to join their cause. Oyo and Ibariba embarked on the slow but steady process of counter attacking the Nupe. This was not simply a war of soldiers, because it was a war of cavalrymen. The savanna landscape was where the Oyo-Ibariba coalition was planning their “get back” towards the Nupe invaders, because they knew a cavalry force had immense advantages over infantry, and this was where the Wasangari, Djerma, and Mossi people came in.
Oyo needed their cooperation to procure the horses required to match up evenly against the Nupe on the battlefield. The Wasangari, the ruling elite of the Ibariba Kingdom, built their power on cavalry warfare. They were reputed horse fighters, but the breed of horses they used and needed for warfare had to be purchased from their northern neighbors, like the Djerma (i.e., Songhai), southern Mossi, Malike (i.e., Mali), and Wangarawa (i.e., Soninke). These were African barbary horses that were highly sought after for their great hardiness, stamina, and fiery temperament. It was obvious to the exiled political leaders of Oyo that their hope of ever returning to and securing the homeland of their ancestors depended on acquiring the horses of this special breed and becoming adept at using them for military purposes. It was the never-ending threat of the Nupe cavalrymen that forced Oyo to develop their own cavalry with the help of their Ibariba comrades.
The region of Oyo was conducive to maintaining large herds of horses but difficult for breeding them. Therefore, like the Nupe and Wasangari, the Oyo had to import their horses and many of their warhorse accessories. The Oyo tapped into their old alliances to accomplish this, because in the Djerma, the Oyo found a reliable ally who believed in their cause. Djerma is a subgroup of the Songhai who had traded and lived in the Oyo Kingdom region in the Moshi-Niger River area since the 14th century, if not earlier, the Djerma, along with their southern Mossi neighbors in the Western Sudan, were proficient horse breeders. From them, Oyo began to acquire and build stables. Also, the Wasangari rulers of the Ibariba Kingdom cooperated, and allowed the transportation of these horses through their territories. The Djerma, Mossi, and Wasangari were also excellent cavalrymen, and their elite mounted lancers had a reputation for deadly swiftness and precision. These African ethnic groups or tribes not only provided Oyo with cavalry supplies but also trained Oyo soldiers in cavalry warfare. The Oyo may have recruited Wasangari, Djerma, and Mossi as mercenaries.
Unfortunately, to pay for the horses that were imported from Djerma and Mossi, the Oyo would have had to raid and take captives wherever they could find them. In order words, the strategy that the Nupe used to finance their horse imports from the Hausa people from Hausaland and the Kanuri people from Kanem-Bornu in the Central Sudan was the same way the Oyo’s used to underwrite their equestrian imports from Djerma, Mossi, Malinke, and possibly Wangarawa traders, who are all located in the Western Sudan. The Oyo obtained horses, cavalrymen, and stable hands from the Black civilizations from the Western Sudan, and the Nupe procured theirs from Hausaland and Kanem-Bornu in the Central Sudan.
The Oyo were not the only Yoruba elements seeking to expel the Nupe invaders from their homeland, because further south, in the upper reaches of the rain forest, some Yoruba Ekiti polities fought the Nupe under the banner of Great Benin. The Ife Kingdom is also said to have been engaged in a protracted and costly war at Ara (in the Yoruba Ekiti Kingdom region) during the 16th century. After about 100 years of Nupe invasions into Yorubaland and the instability of Yorubaland, the Nupe’s military might was finally downgraded in many fronts, especially in the Moshi-Niger area and in North Central, Northwestern, and Central Yorubaland. The Nupe militants were expelled from the Yoruba Ekiti-Igbomina-Okun area of Yorubaland during the third quarter of the 16th century, and in the 1570s the Oyo were able to reoccupy the area of their old core kingdom but not likely the old capital itself.
Both the course and end of the Nupe invasion crisis had far-reaching impacts on the Yoruba world. The war was costly in terms of the time it took to bring it to a close, the large-scale displacement and human toll (i.e., number of people killed or displaced), the concomitant social breakdown, and the reliance on captives and enslavement to procure the military hardware, which was the Barbary horses that were needed for Oyo and other regions of the Yoruba world to come out of this war against the Nupe victoriously.
The Administration of the Oyo Empire: Growth & Power and The Oyo Mesi
The reign of the Alaafin Abipa brought the government back to the Oyo-Ile (i.e., the Oyo Kingdom), and have been dated to about the last quarter of the 16th century, from about 1570-1590. Back in the Oyo Kingdom, the government was finally able the breath again and settle down quickly, and the monarchy, the palace organization, the chieftaincy system, and all other institutions. The explanation for such an accomplishment must be that all arms of the government had remained functional during the years of exile, socially in the years at Igboho. Moreover, while the Alaafins had moved gradually towards home, many important families seem to have also taken steps to return from the places to which they had been scattered.
The years following the return of the Alaafin to the Oyo Kingdom proved to be years of phenomenal achievements by the kingdom. From Oyo being a small kingdom, it expanded rapidly to become a powerful and dominate empire, so the Alaafin became an emperor whose territories included fellow Yoruba kingdoms and kingdoms of non-Yoruba peoples. At the peak of the greatness of the Oyo Empire in about the middle of the 18th century, its main components were that first, the kingdom of the Yoruba Oyo subgroup became what may be described as the metropolitan province of the empire. The Alaafin ceased to be merely the king of the Oyo Kingdom and became the king of a consolidated kingdom of all the Oyo people, with the Oyo Kingdom as his capital city.
In essence, the Oyo Empire was a large Yoruba kingdom, ruled according to the typical Yoruba system of government applied over a vast territory. At the head of the empire was the all-powerful Alaafin, a typical Yoruba “Divine King.” Like the kings of all Yoruba kingdoms, the Alaafin was selected from the pool of princes of one royal lineage. For the selection, all princes, sons and grandsons of former kings were eligible, with the singular exception of the oldest son of the recently deceased king. From the early 17th century, this one prince, with the title of Aremo, was allowed to be freely associated with his reigning father in matters of government, and then he had to die (by committing suicide) when his father died. Succession by primogeniture was, as would be remembered, generally rejected by Yoruba kingdoms; the Oyo Kingdom’s requirement that the Aremo must die represents a particularly drastic rejection of it. The purpose, as in all Yoruba kingdoms, was to ensure that the right of the people to select their king would not be interfered with by one privileged prince.
As in all Yoruba kingdoms, in theory, by popular sayings, and as demonstrated in civic ceremonies and rituals, the government was the Alaafins government, and he was supposed to have the power of life and death over his subjects. But the Yoruba system of limited monarchy over which he reigned, he was subject to well established, powerful, institutions, as well as to elaborate rules and prohibitions. The high Inner Council of chiefs, named the “Oyo Mesi,” which consisted of seven of the most powerful quarter chiefs of the capital city of the Oyo Empire, Oyo-Ile (i.e., the Oyo Kingdom) and the titles of these powerful chiefs were the Basorun, Agbakin, Samu, Alapini, Laguna, Akiniku, and Asipa. They met with the Alaafin daily in the palace to make all laws and take the highest decisions and were then announced to the kingdom as the Alaafin’s word. Outside that system, the Alaafin might not try to operate. In the generally militarized mode of existence to which this kingdom was forced by circumstances, the high chiefs of the Oyo Mesi were also the highest military chiefs. They also bore the responsibility of selecting new kings, and of removing an unpopular king by asking, if matters came to such an end, to “go to sleep,” or the king being asked to die with dignity and honor by removing and relieving himself of his duties as king by committing suicide.
Far more than any other Yoruba kingdom, the political system of the Oyo Empire emphasized military strength and preparedness. Apart from the high military chiefs of the Oyo Mesi, almost every other chief, no matter what functions he performed in the state, was also supposed to be a military officer, able and ready to command troops. High military positions enjoyed enormous respect and honor in society, and the upbringing of the youths of the Oyo Kingdom devoted much emphasis to military skills. The earliest Alaafins personally led their armies to war, such as one of the earliest Alaafins named Oluodo who drowned in the Niger River while leading his army in a war with the Nupe. A later Alaafin named Ajiboyede nearly lost his life in battle with the Nupe outside the walls of Igboho, during the exile. From the time of Alaafin Abipa, Alaafin Ajiboyede’s successor, the Alaafins no longer led their armies in person, because that task fell to the great war chiefs.
The Oyo Empire and the European Transatlantic Slave Trade
By the middle of the 18th century, the Oyo Empire stood at the peak of its territorial greatness, its prosperity and wealth, its pride and glory. By the end of the 18th century, the empire began to disintegrate, and by the fourth decade of the 19th century, the Oyo Empire collapsed completely, because of the civil war in Yorubaland, European political influence, including the European Transatlantic slave trade, and eventually European imperial rule over all Yoruba people.
For two centuries prior to the 19th century, the Oyo Empire exercised powerful influences for peace in Yorubaland, both directly and indirectly. Indirectly, the Alaafin’s empire amounted to about half of Yorubaland and more than half of its total population. For two centuries, the Alaafin’s rule enjoyed orderly government, peace, prosperity and pride. Directly, widespread Yoruba traditions attest to the Alaafin’s interventions in disputes within and between Yoruba kingdoms beyond his own domains. His interventions usually succeeded in maintaining or restoring peace. The Alaafin’s name and aura were great, so great that he employed them directly to uphold order and peace in Yorubaland.
The disintegration and collapse of the Oyo Empire destroyed the pre-existing system of order and security in Yorubaland and created a situation where all centers of power, old and new, had to scramble to establish new systems and patterns that would guarantee order and security. These efforts created conflicts and wars in Yorubaland which the Yoruba people could not put an end to, well, not until European powers intervened and imposed their own system of order, security and peace.
The Oyo Empire participated in the Transatlantic slave trade with European nations, and some historians have suggested that the late 18th century troubles of the Oyo Kingdom were caused by effects from the Transatlantic slave trade. The Oyo’s increasing participation in the slave trade brought enormous wealth to the Alaafins, which in turn produced a situation where the high chiefs became envious of the Alaafins and palace officials. This development ultimately resulted in conflicts and eventual disintegration of the Oyo Kingdom. Other historians on the other hand have said available evidence points to the income from the slave trade was never an important factor for the Alaafins revenue.
According to Nigerian (Yoruba) Historian Ade Ajayi and other historians, much of the revenue of the Oyo kings was not related to the slave trade, because most of their revenue came mostly from taxes on trade in the marketplaces and toll gates, from tributes and gifts rendered by the provincial rulers and vassal rulers (i.e., the Oyo Empire’s vassal kingdom of Dahomey, which was located in present-day Benin Republic had a tax revenue alone that projected to be $1 million a year), large-scale primary production on the kings’ farms, and trading ventures in which the Alaafins employed many of their wives and servants. Although revenue from the slave trade grew, it was only a small part of the Oyo government’s revenue.
According to the late 19th century Yoruba oral traditions, King Obalokun of Oyo established trading contacts with European trading missions on the coast, who were the Portuguese, Dutch, or English during his reign ca. from the 1590s-1620s. He also opened diplomatic relations with a European king. It was said that King Obalokun sent 800 messengers to deliver presents to a European sovereign, but unfortunately, all 800 men disappeared. These men were never seen or heard of again. These messengers of Oyo may have gotten abducted by Europeans. The Oyo Empire’s loss of 800 men was proof that King Obalokun’s friendship with the European king was imaginary. The European king didn’t respect the Oyo King, his authority, or his country.
The brutal Yoruba Wars of the 19th century brought widespread destruction to Yoruba cities, towns, and villages. For some 700 years the Yoruba people built these cities and towns all over their country, and in one century they destroyed the biggest and best of them. European intervention in Yoruba politics, especially their Transatlantic slave trade and European imperialism forced the Yoruba people to give up rulership of their country, Yorubaland.
The Yoruba have been living in their west African homeland since as far back as 8,000 years ago. The closing act of the 19th century was a century of change and transformations in Yorubaland, and the Yoruba country became a possession of three European nations, with British rule over most of Yorubaland, who conquered, colonized, and created Nigeria, the French, who conquered, colonized, and created Benin Republic, and the Germans, but later became a possession of the French, who conquered, colonized, and created Togo Republic. As the 20th century opened, all Yoruba people, like all other peoples of tropical Africa, were forced to be subjects of alien European imperialist overlords.
Historians have suggested answers as to why were the Yoruba people so comparatively little involved in the European Transatlantic slave trade from the 16th century to the middle of the 18th century. Most believe that Yorubaland before the Yoruba Wars of the 19th century, and forced European political intrusion, Yorubaland was in general a peaceful country.
Image I (Left): A History of the Yoruba People, by Dr. Steven Adebanji Akintye
Image II (Middle): Beautiful and Lovely Yoruba woman in traditional Yoruba attire
Image III (Right): Orishas: The Ultimate Guide to Yoruba Tradition, Sacred Rituals, the Divine Feminine, and Spiritual Enlightenment of African Culture and Wisdom- The Ancient Orishas, by Evelyn Marie Fournette
“The Yoruba also pride themselves on being very good-looking people and believe that beauty is important in life.”
– Evelyn Marie Fournette
Later during the 20th century, Nigeria, Benin Republic, and Togo Republic became independent. The Yoruba people and other African ethnic groups or tribes were finally released from the shackles of the British Empire (i.e., Nigeria), the French Empire (i.e., Benin Republic), and the German Empire, but later French Empire (i.e., Togo Republic) in West Africa.
The Rise & Fall of the Honorable Sikh Empire
The Sikh Empire: Present-day Punjab, which consists of parts of Pakistan and Northwestern India.
“In 1739, Nadar Shah, who has been likened to the Napoleon of Asia, invaded India from Persia and sacked Delhi. His army enslaved countless Indian women, and a band of Sikhs ambushed the Afghans and freed them. This was motivated by their religious views on equality, but they also saw themselves as defenders of the oppressed and of the Punjab in particular.”
– Captivating History, author of History of the Sikhs: A Captivating Guide to the Origins of Sikhism in India, the Sikh Empire, Colonialism, and Modern Times (Exploring India’s Past)
The Sikhs are an ethnoreligious group, which means they share the same ethnicity and the same faith. Sikhism is one of the least well-known world religions. Sikhism emerged in India during the 15th century, and most of its followers are found in the present-day state of Punjab, which is parts of Pakistan and Northwestern India. Due to the Sikhs migrating, they are found all over the world, especially the English-speaking countries. Throughout history, the Sikhs have played a key role in India, Pakistan, and the British Empire.
The Punjab region is the physical and spiritual home of the Sikhs, they have a deep relationship with the soil of Punjab, and the history of this land has decisively shaped them as a community and people. Today, this large geopolitical and cultural area is divided between the present-day states of India and Pakistan. Punjab is a state that is very fertile, because it is watered by five rivers. This state has also been one of the richest parts of India, because even during the modern era, Punjab is considered the “breadbasket of India” and the “Islamic Republic of Pakistan.”
The land of Punjab has a rich and dynamic history that was home to many foreign conquerors and diverse civilizations. For example, in the 4th century BCE, Alexander the Great invaded the region. The land was also a part of the Mauryan Empire, and after the fall of the Mauryan Empire, a series of foreign rulers ruled Punjab, like the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians, and Kushans. The region was devastated by the Huns before the emergence of powerful local Hindu dynasties.
Punjabis are renowned as farmers and traders because of their geographic location and access to precious resources, and during the modern era, Sikhs are famed for their entrepreneurial spirit. Since the region lay on any invasion route into India, its people developed a warrior culture to protect themselves. The Sikh warrior culture was based on the honor code known as izzat. Preserving the honor and reputation of oneself and one’s family at any cost was the norm. The military tradition of the region and its concept of honor have been crucial in the emergence of Sikh identity. Like the idea of the “soldier-saint,” which means a Sikh warrior protecting his community.
India is home to many religions, including Hinduism, Jainism, Islam, Buddhism, and traditional folk beliefs, such as the worship of ancestors. In the Sikh religion, the Sikh sants or spiritual rulers are revered as ideals of spiritual truth and have been enormously influential. In general, Sikhism is liberal and religious toleration was the norm in the past, and there was a regular exchange of ideas between various faiths. Historically, Punjabi society was structured around a clan system, which individuals claiming descent from an ancestor often lived together in villages. This concept of a clan is still important to the Sikhs today.
The caste system, a social hierarchy based on castes, or defined groups based on lineage, was traditionally strong in Punjab. Unfortunately, the idea of castes is still influential, and lower castes suffer discrimination based on their birth despite it being prohibited by the modern Indian government. Sikhism has had a complicated relationship with the caste system throughout its history, because many Sikhs still belong to castes despite their religion and its teachings, because Sikhism encourages people from all faiths and castes to join, but they respect other faiths regardless. Individuals from both high and low castes, even the “Black Untouchables” or “Dalits” became followers of the spiritual master and founder of Sikhism: Guru Nanak.
The rise of Sikhism was shaped by the dramatic history of the Mughal Empire (1526-1857). The relationship between the Mughals and the Sikhs is a complicated one, because the first centuries of the Sikhs’ history revolved around their interactions and struggles with the Mughals, a Turkic-Persian warrior elite. At the height of their empire, the Mughals ruled large regions of present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The Mughal Empire is said to be established in 1526 by Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, two of the world’s greatest conquerors. The Mughals were Muslims, and during their rule of southern Punjab, they converted the region to Islam. Non-Muslims, who formed most of the population had to pay the jiza, a tax to secure protection from the Mughal emperor and the right to practice their faith.
Local village life didn’t change much under Mughal rule, and many regions remained self-governing entities. Muslims dominated the army and government of the Mughal Empire, but many Hindus were integrated into the system and rose to prominent positions. Hindus also often served in the bureaucracy, and one of these would become the founder of the Sikh faith. This soon to become spiritual leader was the most important person in the history of the Sikhs: Guru Nanak.
Guru Nanak: The Father of the Sikhs
19th century painting of the first Sikh guru: Guru Nanak
Amritpal Singh Mann. Painted by Jaimal Singh Naqqash (1860-1916), Mehtab Singh Naqqash (1871-1940), and Hukum Singh., CC BY-SA 4.0
Unlike the polytheistic traditions of Hinduism and the strict monotheism of Islam, Guru Nanak’s vision of God through Sikhism was formless, timeless, and present within all things. He rejected social hierarchies and activity opposed caste discrimination. His teachings promotes a culture of giving, where wealth and resources are not hoarded but distributed to benefit society. Nanak emphasized that true spirituality comes from truthful living, kindness, and devotion to God, and not from performing outward ceremonies or rituals.
Early sources state that Nanak was born at Rāi Bhoi Kī Talvaņḍī village, which today is in the Punjab region of Pakistan, about 50 miles from Lahore in what was then the Islamic Lodi Empire. Nanak was born into an affluent and well-connected Hindu family. Both of his parents belonged to the Khatri caste, which defined their social and religious status. Nanak’s mother and father came from a merchant background, and the Khatri caste had become the dominate mercantile class, and many served as administrators, especially in finance.
Nanak was a prodigy in spiritual matters and was interested in theology. By age seven, Nanak could discuss abstruse metaphysical religious subjects. One source even claimed that Nanak discussed oneness of God while still at school, to the astonishment of his elders. Nanak would live the uneventful life of a government official until 1497. During this time, he wrote many religious hymns, and he began to refine his beliefs. These works are now classics of Punjabi literature and were written in the literary language used in the region at the time. Nanak might have come under the influence of the Bhakti Movement, which stressed individual devotion to a single god and urged social reforms. The Islamic Sufi tradition, which preached a mystical union with God, might have also inspired Nanak.
A later biography claimed that Nanak had an intense religious experience that lasted three days and left him a changed man, imbued with an understanding of the divine. He might have even had a union with the divine. For 30 years, Nanak roamed much of the known world, and some scholars, based on the evidence found in the hymns, believe that he traveled all over southern Asia, and the Middle East. He visited major pilgrimage sites sacred to Hindus, such as Achal Batala and Multan. Some sources say he even visited the holy city of Mecca and the great Islamic city of Baghdad, the cultural capital of the Muslim world. There are also claims that Guru Nanak visited Jerusalem and the continent of Africa. Some sources claim that Nanak performed miracles on his travels, and many scholars have noted that these stories are like the claims of Islamic Sufi mystics, who are famed for the miraculous powers.
In his final years, Nanak gained a reputation of a wise man and attracted several followers and students. These students ultimately gave the name to Nanak’s new faith and philosophy. The name “Sikh” has its origin in the Sanskrit word śişya, which can be translated into English as “disciple” or “student.” By the time of Nanak’s death, he was seen as a guru, a spiritual master who had established his own path to salvation. In Sanskrit, the term guru can be understood as mentor, master, or expert. It is not known how many disciples Guru Nanak had by the time of his death. To Sikhs, Nanak is the first guru and figure of utmost importance in their religion. He is often known as Baba Nanak or Father Nanak. His hymns and writings have been held to be prophetic and teach believers how to attain salvation, and they are still studied widely.
The faith and philosophy of Sikhism by Guru Nanak was simple, and had influences from Islam, Buddhism, and especially Hinduism. He believed in the concept of the transmigration of the soul and the law of Dharma, a moral law that governs reality. The religion of Sikhism is an attempt to secure salvation and an escape from endless rebirths, death, and suffering. Nanak taught a form of salvation that was more than just an escape from rebirth. Those who are saved have achieved a mystical union with God, who can be understood as the total manifestation of the divine and who is a single invisible being that is present in the spirit of every human on Earth and penetrates the natural world. Sikhs strive to achieve a total union with God. Followers of Guru Nanak believe that his spirit stirs in them when they are mediating and striving to achieve unity with God.
Nanak taught that the goal of Sikhism is to abolish the duality between God and humanity. He focused on love, which was a form of worship and allowed the individual to attain a higher ethical and spiritual state, because Guru Nanak believed that it was necessary to love all people, not just a single God. The world is not wicked, and it is seen as spiritual. The ordinary world is part of the infinite, which is unlike Hindu tradition, which sees it as only illusionary and full of misery. People who are spiritually aware can live a more fulfilling life and not just expect a better life in the next. Those who live an honest life based on truth and self-control achieve a form of perfection.
Guru Nanak also taught that every person could have a direct relationship with God and that there was no need for intermediaries such as priests. This is why during the modern era; Sikh priests have no divine status but can be seen as religious officials of Sikhism. Nanak urged all his disciples to seek the unity of humanity. This could be achieved by promoting equality and working together for the greater good by living a useful life. Salvation could be achieved by ethical conduct since this could change the human mind as much as meditation. Among the ways this could be accomplished was through sharing and consuming (i.e., sharing with others and dining with them). Working honestly and not taking advantage of others was also important in Sikhism. This belief meant that caste and gender, among other things, like eschewing all forms of unnecessary violence was a radical approach for medieval 15th century India and Pakistan. These teachings have become a key part of the ethics of Sikhism and have greatly influenced their social customs.
Communal dinning is a feature of Sikh life in India and beyond, as is the emphasis on hard, honest work. When Guru Nanak transitioned to be with the ancestors at the age of 70, his successor, Bhai Lehna, of which Nanak appointed assumed the name Guru Angad, which loosely means “my own limb.” Angad was Nanak’s companion and revered holy man (i.e., or sant) Bhai Bala. There were institutions of ordinary people and non-Sikhs, which was a great example of the radical doctrine of equality inherent in Sikhism. This appealed to many Jats who lived in Eastern Punjab. During this time, they abandoned their traditional beliefs and converted to Islam or Hinduism. Many of this ethnicity/caste were attracted by Guru Nanak’s teachings, which offered them an opportunity to improve their social position in society. His teachings were also more aligned with their preexisting beliefs.
In history, the Muslim rulers of Punjab tolerated Guru Nanak’s activities, but there were some tensions when one of Nanak’s disciples named Bhai Tar Popat preached against Mughal Emperor Babur. For his criticism of Emperor Babur, Popat was burned alive by the Mughals in 1526, making him the first martyr of Sikhism.
The 10 Gurus of the Sikh Faith
Guru Nanak: The Father of the Sikhs (15th Century)
Guru Angad: (1504-1552)
Guru Amar Das: (1479-1574)
Guru Ram Das: (1534-1581)
Guru Arjan: The First Martyred Guru (1563-1603)
Guru Hargobind: Blood and War (1595-1644)
Guru Har Rai: Consolidation (1630-1661)
Guru Har Krishan: The Child Guru (1656-1664)
Guru Tegu Bahadur: The Second Martyr (1621-1675)
Guru Gobind Singh: The Last Guru (1666-1708)
The Early Gurus and the Flowering of the Sikh Faith: Guru Gobind Singh & Emperor Ranjit Singh
In the Sikh faith, there were 10 gurus who followed the teachings of Guru Nanak, but during the late 17th century would see the end of personal guruship among the Sikhs. The religion eventually became less focused on sacred texts, and it also saw the development of the unique religious-social institution of the Khalsa, which allowed Sikhism to survive and prosper.
Gobind Singh: The Last and Greatest Guru since the Father of the Sikhs: Guru Nanak
The last guru was Gobind Singh (1666-1708), and his impact on Sikhism was the greatest since the Father of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak. Gobind was the only son of the ninth spiritual and secular leader of the ethnoreligious group. The future guru was born while his father was traveling in the city of Patna in the northern state of Bihar. A shrine in Patna marks his birthplace. Gobind was taken back to Punjab, where he was raised and educated in the Shivalik Hills, a stronghold of Sikhism, which also probably indicates that he was placed there for his safety.
People claimed he was a prodigy from an early age, and he exemplified many of the expected attributes of a Sikh, such as humility and a concern for social justice. He was trained in martial arts and learned several languages. He was also interested in the arts and literature, because by age 18, he had written an epic modeled on the Puranas, the ancient Hindu texts. In this work, Gobind wrote about a battle between good and evil and developed an idea of a righteous war to defend one’s faith and the good that has proven influential in the theology of the Sikhs. In 1675, his father was arrested, but before his father’s death, he wrote a letter to his son Gobind with advice and challenges to test if his son was worthy to become a leader of the faithful. Gobind was officially made guru during the spring harvest festival in April 1676. The execution of his father changed his life and ended his youth.
It appears that while Gobind Singh assumed more responsibilities, much of the government was in the hands of senior members of the community. He continued his education after his elevation to the position as head of the Sikhs. By this time, he was 17-years-old, and he had married twice. Gobind’s rule was marked by constant war. The conflict between the Mughals and the Sikhs reached new and high levels of brutality. Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb eventually left the Sikhs alone, because he was struggling to have control of his vast empire. Gobind Singh took advantage of the opportunity during this period of peace to strengthen his army. Bhim Chand, a Rajput ruler of Kahlur (Bilaspur) distrusted the growing military of the Sikhs, because in 1682, he demanded a huge tribute, which included several war elephants, which played an important role in Indian warfare. Bhim Chand anticipated that the 16-year-old Guru Gobind Singh would submit to him, but he was wrong. When Bhim Chand attacked the Sikhs, he was defeated by the teen guru and was victorious at the Battle of Anandpur in 1982. This remarkable victory by the guru prodigy of the Sikhs was in part due to the fanatical bravery of his Sikh standing army, the Akal Sena, which was famed for its incredible bravery and fearlessness.
In 1685, Gobind’s military forces defeated Rajput’s forces at the Second Battle of Anandpur in 1688. Also, in 1688, the Sikhs defeated a Hindu ruler in the Shivalik Hills. It was these battles that expanded the territories of the Sikhs. Under Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikhs sought to segregate themselves from both Hindu and Muslim communities, yet they still had good relations with those religions, especially with the Hindu religious authorities. The evidence of growing tensions the Sikhs had with the Muslims would have saddened the Father of the Sikhs: Guru Nanak, whose powerful teachings and messages were about absolute equality of all people, and doing away with caste, class, and gender division. Guru Gobind used the concept of war as a “righteous war,” which was once outlined in his epic poem, to mobilize the Sikhs in these endless conflicts.
Guru Gobind’s success as a spiritual and military leader raised red flags in the mind of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, because he was forced to become alarmed by the growing power of the Sikhs in Punjab, which was a key agricultural region in northern India. Emperor Aurangzeb’s later years were marked by constant efforts to suppress rebellions. Gobind Singh was able to ally with several Hindu rulers, several of whom had become his vassals, while others joined him in a bid to free themselves from the onerous fiscal demands of the Mughals. By this time, the Sikh Army was experienced and used a combination of traditional Punjabi arms and tactics, along with new innovations. After the Mughal failed attack on Anandpur, which became the center of Sikh political and religious life, Guru Gobind Singh and the Sikhs were largely left alone.
Gobind Singh is responsible for the founding of a new warrior and religious society, known as the “Khalsa.” During the spring harvest ceremony of 1699, Gobind announced the new name of men initiated into the Khalsa was Singh (i.e., lion) to symbolize their ferocity and fearlessness. He also changed his surname to Singh, and his predecessors were also given this appellation. Gobind Singh also ordered the end of the previous system of religious officials and ordained that the Khalsa would succeed it. He also developed a more centralized system of administration. Not all the faithful of Sikhism were willing to become baptized, and they became known as the Nanakpanthi Sikhs. They disliked the innovations and believed that the Khalsa was not sanctioned by the teachings of the founder, Guru Nanak. Gobind also declared that no member of the community should pay religious taxes to non-Sikhs and forbade certain Hindu customs. He laid down that no Sikh could cut their bodily hair. Sikhs had to refrain from eating meat slaughtered in the Hindu and Islamic way, and he also forbade alcohol or intoxicants and prohibited adultery. He issued a decree that stated that any of his followers who did not heed the prohibitions were to be excommunicated.
Gobind Singh decreed that any true believer had to adopt a dress code as a religious duty. It is now known as the “Five Ks.” The Five Ks are:
Kesh (long hair)
Kangha (comb)
Kara (metal bangle on the wrist or ankle)
Kachera (breeches)
Kirpan (sword)
Pious followers of Sikhism usually wear the Five Ks all the time, even during the modern era. The wearing of a turban became popular because of Guru Gobind Singh’s reforms. At this time, women of the faith did not become baptized and, therefore, could not be admitted to the Khalsa, but some historians argue they could. Many of these changes, like prohibition on shaving one’s hair for a dead relative, were resisted by many higher caste Sikhs, just like Gobind’s renewed efforts to ensure the equality of all castes. His innovations can be seen as religious, administrative, and militaristic in nature. He sought to help the individual believer to better follow the teachings of the religion’s founder, Guru Nanak. Guru Gobind also created the Khalsa to enable the Sikh community to better resist the Mughals and other Muslim rulers. He was very much aware that Emperor Aurangzed of the Mughal Empire would try to convert his people to Islam, and his reforms sought to forge a strong collective identity among the adherents of Sikhism so they could resist these attempts successfully.
After a series Sikh of victories led by Guru Gobind Singh, the latter years of his rule was nothing short of disastrous for the adherents of Sikhism. Firstly, Gobind had no surviving sons and did not have the opportunity to identify a new heir. This period of uninterrupted success abruptly changed with the appointment of Wazir Khan as governor of a large area of Northwest India. Khan was a shrewd tactician and became the most formidable enemy of the Sikhs. After assembling a large force, complete with cannons, he proceeded to lay siege to the de-facto Sikh capital of Anandpur. The estimated number of soldiers in the army raised by Wazir Khan is claimed to have been around 100 million but was likely an exaggeration. He moved quickly on Anandpur, whose garrison only numbered at 10,000, and Gobind Singh was caught off guard and found himself trapped in the city with his family. Wazir Khan continued to lay siege to the city for several weeks, and the defenders, Guru Gobind and his military ran low on ammunition, and because it was winter, their food supply was limited. The Sikhs could hold out no longer.
Surprisingly, Wazir Khan offered Gobind Singh a safe passage for him and his family. The Sikh leader was told that Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb had sworn on the Qur’an that he would honor the terms of the agreement. In December 1704, the Sikhs left the city unmolested and tried to cross the Sarsa River. Mughal Governor Wazir Khan waited until the Khala forces began crossing the river, and then he attacked. Guru Gobind Singh had been tricked and backstabbed. These deceitful actions by the Mughal governor did not display honest and ethical leadership. Guru Gobind Singh was disappointed and furious with Wazir Khan because he gave his word to the guru, but Wazir Khan didn’t hesitate to be deceptive towards him. Gobind felt betrayed, because honesty and ethical leadership qualities are strongly embedded principles in the religion of Sikhism.
In the battle, Gobind Singh got separated from his family, and two of his sons fell into the hands of the army of the Mughal enemy. Many Sikhs lost their lives, and the remnants of the Khalsa gathered at a hill in a bid to make a last stand. They were soon surrounded by a massive enemy force. Senior members of the Khalsa urged the guru to flee so he could continue the fight and lead the community. He reluctantly agreed, and a soldier who looked like him dressed in his robes to fool the enemy and not to alarm the soldiery. Gobind Singh was able to flee in the night, and in the following morning, Wazir Khan’s army attacked the remaining forces and annihilated them. Sadly, among the dead were Guru Gobind Singh’s two eldest sons. Remarkably, Gobind Singh’s successful escape was aided by a Muslim chieftain. The leader of the Khalsa, Guru Gobind Singh wrote a letter to Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, denouncing him for breaking his oath sworn in the Qur’an; a cowardly move for leaders who choose not to live and move in truth.
These series of defeats in the winter of 1704 perhaps represents one of the darkest hours of the Sikh religion and its moment of great danger, because another two of Gobind Singh’s sons, at age five and eight, were captured, along with his mother. The Muslims killed the young boys in the most ruthless way when the two boys refused to convert to Islam. The two boys were bricked up alive in a wall. They also killed the boy’s grandmother, Gobind Singh’s mother, by stabbing her to death. Guru Gobind Singh’s murdered sons are now regarded as Sikh saints. As to be expected, the last guru of the Sikhs was worn out and exhausted after the constant struggles of trying his best to protect his people, religion, and dealing with the death of four of his sons and mother.
Guru Gobind Singh may have intended all along to transfer authority in the Sikh community to a set of holy texts. He was the last of the human gurus of Sikhism, but all the wisdom and authority of all the gurus of Sikhism were firmly embedded in Granth Sahib, a sacred scripture that started as a collection of Guru Nanak’s hymns and poetry, which is the most important series of texts in Sikhism. It was from this point forward that the followers of Sikhism had to seek guidance on religious and ethical matters in the sacred texts and obey the rules of Khalsa, a religious and social institution of Sikhism that structured the lives of the believers. This remains the case even during the modern era.
Emperor Ranjit Singh: The Founder of The Honorable Sikh Empire
During the 18th century, Sikhism underwent an extraordinary transformation. This deeply spiritual faith was forced by persecution to militarize, which led to becoming a major and dominant military force. By 1800, the Sikh Confederacy had morphed and became a powerful empire. By the 1790s, the Sikh Confederacy was so powerful that it could finally impose its will on their arch enemy, the Mughal Empire. Yet, the newly Sikh Confederacy was highly decentralized and was divided between 11 Sikh Misls and one Muslim Misl (i.e., Misl means Sikh state). It was during this period that a remarkable leader emerged among the Sikhs: Ranjit Singh.
The Origins of the War Machine of the Honorable Sikh Empire
Ranjit Singh’s father was the ruler of the Sukerchakia Misl, and his mother was a daughter of the ruler of the neighboring Misl. The marriage had created a unified Misl. Ranjit had survived smallpox, but it left him blind in one eye. Undeterred, he served as a warrior in the army from the age of 10. He inherited his father’s Misl at the age of 12, and by 13-years-old, he had survived his first assassination attempt. Ranjit married young; it was a political marriage, but it failed because his new wife could not forgive her husband’s family for her father’s death in a battle with Ranjit’s father. He remarried, and his new mother-in-law became his advisor. Aristocratic women played an important role in various Sikh Misls and courts. In total Ranjit married 10 times, and they were political marriages, and they all did much to extend his power.
During the Sikh-Afghan Wars in 1748, Nawab Kupar appointed Jassa Singh Ahluwalia (1713-1778), the commander of the Dal Khalsa. The task he faced was enormous, as he not only had to face the implacable Mughals, but he also had to deal with the repeated invasions of Shah Durrani (1747-1772), who ruled much of present-day Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan and defeated the Mughals and the Marathas. The Sikhs defied him bravely even though he adopted brutal tactics against them. It was around this time that many non-Sikhs saw the members of that faith as the defenders of Punjab. The Sikh’s commitment to equality and freedom also made them much admired. It is reported that many tolerant Hindus permitted their sons to join the Dal Khalsa and convert to Sikhism. The soldiers of the Khalsa came to be enlisted in the service of Hindu rulers who sought to fend off the invasions and raids of Durrani, who has been called the “Father of Afghanistan.”
After Durrani won the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), he enslaved thousands of Maratha women. On his way home, the Sikhs ambushed the Afghans and, once again, freed thousands of captives who were about to be doomed to a life of sexual slavery. Such heroic acts made the honorable Sikhs more popular and won them the respect of many people. Durrani was feared even by his fellow Muslims, as he killed and enslaved many of his co-religionists (i.e., fellow brothers of the faith of Islam). He had a reputation of being notoriously ruthless after he captured some princesses of the Mughal Dynasty and had them taken as his harem.
Afghan Zaman Shah Durrani invaded the Sikh Confederacy in 1797 with the intention of not just raiding but also annexing Punjab. The focus of the invasion was Ranjit’s Singh’s lands, but with the assistance of the Sikh Empire’s standing army, Ranjit defeated Shah Durrani. In 1798, the Afghans invaded again with a vast army. Ranjit, the master Sikh militarist allowed the Afghans to capture Lahore, and once they occupied it, Ranjit and his army surrounded the city and trapped them in. He presented to the Afghans the illusion that they successfully invaded and conquered a strategic region of Sikh territory. The Afghans eventually escaped but with heavy casualties. The young ruler of the Sikhs was now commander of the Dal Khalsa and was widely respected in his community and beyond. In 1800, he conquered Banji Misl and recaptured Lahore.
Ranjit Singh was a pragmatist and adopted a policy of toleration, because his rule was welcomed by Sufi Muslims who had suffered persecution from Sunni Muslim rulers and Hindus. In 1801, he assumed the title of “Maharaja” or “Emperor” of Punjab. Many Sikh Misls accepted his rule, as they feared the instability that had occurred during the later days of the Sikh Confederacy. His coronation meant that the alliance of local rulers had become an empire, the Honorable Sikh Empire, but nevertheless, the aristocracy remained very powerful.
The Sikh Empire building and expansion began when Emperor Ranjit attacked and captured Amritsar (the original and spiritual Sikh city where the Golden Temple was constructed) from a local non-Sikh ruler. The Golden Temple was in a state of despair, and Emperor Ranjit restored it. He had much of it covered in gold, which gave rise to its name in the West or Western (European) civilization.
The geopolitical situation in India during the 19th century had transformed. The British East India Company had seized much of India by force after a series of wars and treaties. It also expelled its European competitors in India, and they reduced the Mughal emperor as a puppet ruler. Typically, the East India Company ruled its territory indirectly and used native rulers to manage lands. They could remain in power if they paid taxes and gave the East India Company trade privileges. Soon, the growing Sikh Empire met the all-conquering British Empire. The pragmatist Ranjit Singh signed an agreement with the British East India Company in 1806, which demarcated the Sutlej River as their respective spheres of influence.
Hari Singh Nalwa was given command of the regular Sikh Army, which was founded in 1801, and he expanded the empire further. He pushed the borders of the empire to the Indus and the Hindu Kush. He was a talented commander, and he placed a puppet ruler on the throne of Kashmir. It was during this time that the fabled Koh-i-Noor diamond came into the possession of the Sikh Maharaja. During the modern era, it is part of the British Crown Jewels.
During the expansion of the Sikh Empire, many Hindus became Sikhs, such as many members of the Dogra ethnic group. The Sikh Empire included most of the historical area of Punjab and neighboring lands, which had a population of 35 million people. It was one of the richest and most populated states in the world by the 19th century. Emperor Ranjit was not a spiritual teacher; he was a king, but he did initiate policies on religion. For instance, he ended the policies on religion, and the practice of Gurmata, or religious laws, which were passed by Sikh assemblies. He gave control of many gurdwaras and holy sites to sects such as Nirmala. The Nirmals interpret the teachings of Nanak in the light of Hindu philosophy and theology. Emperor Ranjit Singh had strained relations with orthodox Sikhs because of his liberal policies and because of his personal life; he married non-Sikhs and allowed them to continue to practice their faith. He made efforts to restore temples and cities, such as Gujranwala, spurred the development of a distinctive Sikh school of art, including frescos and mosaics. Art and cultural artifacts became important in the legitimization of Ranjit Singh, because he was a great builder, and during his reign, the distinctive style of Sikh temples appeared, which drew upon the various traditions in Punjab.
Ranjit Singh reformed the Sikh Army and introduced European weapons and tactics. He was willing to recognize merit, and many Hindus and Muslims secured high ranks in his armed forces. In Sikh accounts, the era of the Sikh Empire was something of a golden age, but Muslim and British accounts are often hostile. Some Muslims claimed they suffered from various forms of discrimination, but in general, the Sikh population prospered and grew during the rule of Emperor Ranjit Singh.
In 1839, Ranjit Singh probably died of alcoholism. He had a large family and they all plotted to advance their interests. Although there were much infighting and unexplained deaths after Emperor Ranjit Singh transitioned to be with the ancestors, the Sikh Army greatly expanded after his death, and its regiments were run by committees inspired by Guru Nanak’s ideas on equality. They became increasingly independent during the chaos at the court. Many of the British East India Company referred to this situation as a military democracy, which greatly alarmed the members of the British East India Company. The British began to interfere in Sikh political affairs when the state was growing very unstable. The British supported many members of the aristocracy who wanted a return to the old Misl system. In 1843, the British annexed the province of Sindh (i.e., present-day Pakistan), and they became concerned that the powerful Sikh Army, which even had contingents of European mercenaries, could invade and take that territory.
In 1846, the decisive Battle of Sobraon was fought. The British regiments consisting mainly of Bengalis and the world-famous Gurkhas, the fearsome warriors from the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal, launched many bayonet charges, which finally broke the defensive lines. Many became trapped when a bridge collapsed, but they fought to the death. The Sikh’s were defeated, and while they fought ferociously, they were greatly outnumbered, and the Sikh Empire’s surrender to the British Empire was inevitable. The Sikhs had no choice but to seek terms from the invading British Empire. The defeat of the Sikhs meant that the last state in India had been subdued. The victorious British imposed harsh terms. For example, The Sikh Empire lost a lot of territory, including Kashmir, and many of those who resisted the British were imprisoned or had their lands confiscated. The emperor of the Sikh Empire remained, but he was only a nominal ruler, because the real power lay with the representatives of the British East India Company.
Image I (Left): History of the Sikhs: A Captivating Guide to the Origins of Sikhism in India, the Sikh Empire, Colonialism, and Modern Times (Exploring India’s Past), by Captivating History
Image II (Middle): Courtesy of the Beautiful and Seductive Tinder Badhesha in traditional Indian (Punjabi) attire, @tinderoni (India, South Asia)
“The Real Princess Jasmine. Making fairy tales come to life isn't easy, but someone has to do it.”
– Tinder Badhesha, @tinderoni
Through Guru Nanak, Sikhism championed women’s rights, because he declared that women were no less than men. He also questioned why women, who gave birth to kings and saints, should be treated as inferior. Nanak’s teachings encouraged respect, education, and spiritual freedom for all. He taught that one should work with integrity, avoid exploitation, and use earnings to help others, because the foundation of Sikhism is a faith based on unity, love, and justice.
Image III (Right): Understanding Sikhism: A Comprehensive Guide to Beliefs, Traditions, and the Sikh Way of Life (Journey of Wisdom Book 14), by David M. Eaton
The Sikh Empire represented the height of Sikh military power, and it still shapes the ethnoreligious community’s identity and culture during the modern era. The 20th century is when India and Pakistan were finally independent and released from the shackles of the British Empire.
The Yoruba and Sikh (Punjabi) Similarities: West African & South Asian Spirituality & the Fight for Supreme Sovereignty
“The song changes, so the drumming changes to suit it.” – Yoruba Proverb
Image I (Left): Beautiful and Lovely Yoruba woman in traditional Yoruba attire
The Yoruba spirituality of Ifá is more than a religion; Ifá is the command center of life. The faithful find meaning, direction, and the abiding comfort of spiritual guidance tethered to the intellect within its embrace.
Image II (Right): The Oduduwa Republic Flag
ARISE YORUBA: THE DAY OF YOUR GLORY HAS COME
“In its totality, this is a Manifesto from those of us who are fighting for our sovereign Yoruba nation, our independent Yoruba country separate from Nigeria. I live in the unwavering faith and hope that our Yoruba country shall soon be free, and that thereafter we shall see the glory of God upon the life of our free and sovereign Yoruba nation and upon all of us Yoruba people.”
– Dr. Stephen Adebanji Akintoye, author of The Good News
The Great Oyo Empire
The Oyo Kingdom was founded during the early 12th or late 13th century but became a powerful empire during the 18th century.
The Oyo Empire fell during the 19th century, and the empire was annexed, conquered, and colonized by three European imperialist powers, such as the British Empire, the French Empire, and the German Empire. The Oyo Empire, which is now parts of present-day Southwest Nigeria, Benin Republic, and Togo Republic gained its independence from their alien European overlords during the 20th century.
Image I (Top Left): The Oduduwa Republic Flag
A popular flag choice of the Yoruba people often appearing at rallies, demonstrations and ethnic solidarity events across Yorubaland and the Yoruba diaspora. The Oduduwa flag consists of a blue-white-green diagonal tricolor band representing the sea, the sky/peace and the land respectively. Sixteen six-pointed golden stars said to represent the original sixteen clans/settlements/progenies that emerged from Ife in Yoruba ethnic lore and signifying illumination/progress are arranged in a circular pattern at the centre. Two thinner diagonal red strips representing sacrifice and struggle are placed within the middle band section. A red central laurel representing nobility and sacrifice envelopes a central head representing Oduduwa or Olokun, central figures in Yoruba origin legends, which symbolizes common cultural origins and a shared destiny.
Image II (Bottom Right): The Nishan Sahib or the Sikh Flag
The Nishan Sahib (Punjabi: ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨ ਸਾਹਿਬ, lit. ’respected ensign’), also known as the Sikh flag, is used to represent the Sikh people worldwide.[5] Gurdwaras and other Sikh religious spaces are usually marked with a tall flag.[6]
Nishan is derived from a Persian word with multiple definitions, one of which is “flag” or “standard”.[6] Sahib is an Arabic term meaning “lord” or “master”, in this context it is utilized in an honourifical manner.[6] Thus, the phrase Nishan Sahib means “exalted ensign” or “holy flag”.[6]
Image I (Left): Courtesy of the Beautiful and Seductive Tinder Badhesha in traditional Indian (Punjabi) attire, @tinderoni (India, South Asia)
The idea of the “soldier-saint” protecting their community was and still is important in Punjabi culture, and this is also the case in Sikhism. The creation of an autonomous Punjab state in India did not end the dream of a fully independent sovereign state. The Sikh’s calls for independence were due to insecurity about the religion’s future. Some have even questioned if the Sikhs would be able to maintain their identity in a secular country with the threat of modern Westernized (European) lifestyles and ideas.
Image II (Right): The Nishan Sahib or the Sikh Flag
“One of Sikhism’s most powerful messages is the absolute equality of all people. In a world still struggling with racism, gender inequality, and social class divisions, Sikhism offers a blueprint for a more just and inclusive society. From its very beginning, Sikhism rejected the caste system that divided people based on birth and instead promoted the idea that all humans, regardless of status, race, or gender, are equal in the eyes of God.”
– David M. Eaton, author of Understanding Sikhism: A Comprehensive Guide to Beliefs, Traditions, and the Sikh Way of Life (Journey of Wisdom Book 14)
The Honorable Sikh Empire
The Sikh religion was founded during the 15th century, but the Sikh Confederacy transformed into a dominant empire during the 18th century.
The Sikh Empire fell during the 19th century, and was annexed, conquered, and colonized by the British Empire. The Sikh Empire, which is now the present-day state of Punjab, and what is now parts of Pakistan and Northwestern India. Both Pakistan and India gained its independence from the British Empire, their alien European overlords during the 20th century.
Sources:
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Akintoye, S. A History of the Yoruba People. Amalion Publishing. (Jan 1, 2010). April 12, 2026. p. Cover, 8-9, 16-19, 86, 104, 129, 146, 202-204, 206, 212, 289, 370, 375, 377, 379-380, 382, 393-394, 409-412, 428, 438, 475-477, 525, 579-581, 622, 648.
Akintoye, B. The Good News: Paths to Prosperity in Our Orilede Yoruba. TAC PUBLISHERS. (May 22, 2023). April 13, 2026. p. 6-7, 9, 77, 99.
Badhesha, T. The Real Princess Jasmine. Making fairy tales come to life isn't easy, but someone has to do it. Full Glam by @mua_claudia. Tinder Badhesha (@tinderoni). Instagram. April 20, 2019. April 12, 2026. https://www.instagram.com/p/BwfefH5g3DB/?igsh=MTc4MmM1YmI2Ng%3D%3D
Captivating History. History of the Sikhs: A Captivating Guide to the Origins of Sikhism in India, the Sikh Empire, Colonialism, and Modern Times (Exploring India’s Past). Captivating History. March 8, 2024. April 10, 2026. p. Cover, 1, 3-12, 14, 16-17, 19-20, 23, 25, 29-31, 35-42, 48-49, 51, 53-60, 71, 75-76, 84-88, 90-94.
Clarke, J., Dickson, Gardiner, R., Kröner, A., Mabogunje, A., McMaster, D., Middleton, J., Nicol. D., Smedley, A., Steel, R. Africa – Sahel, Sahara, Coast. Encyclopedia Britannica. April 12, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa/Western-Africa
Cline, A. Dahomey Amazons: History of All-female military warriors and African Kingdom of Dahomey. Adam Cline. (Sept. 14, 2022). April 16, 2026. p. 29.
Dr. Supreme Understanding. When The World Was Black Part One: The Untold History of the World’s First Civilizations, Part One: – Prehistoric Cultures: Volume Two of the Science of Self: Part One: Prehistoric Culture. Supreme Design Publishing. (Feb. 14, 2017). April 12, 2026. p. 201.
Eaton, D. Understanding Sikhism: A Comprehensive Guide to Beliefs, Traditions, and the Sikh Way of Life (Journey of Wisdom Book 14). Interbru Global Publishing. March 9, 2025. April 12, 2026. p. Cover, 9-11, 23-25.
Fournette, E. Orishas: The Ultimate Guide to Yoruba Tradition, Sacred Rituals, the Divine Feminine, and Spiritual Enlightenment of African Culture and Wisdom- The Ancient Orishas. OrangePen Publications. March 1, 2022. April 12, 2026. p. Cover, 7.
Hansen, E., Jensen, D. The History of Sri Lanka: From Sigiriya to Serendipity. Dilshan Jenson. Einar Felix Hansen. June 3, 2023. April 12, 2026. p. 20.
Himasaram. Nishan Sahib.svg. Wikipedia. Aug. 3, 2023. Aug. 13, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nishan_Sahib
Jimerson, R. The Greatness of Black India: Out of Nubia/Kemet to Overcoming White Supremacy. Dr. Rufus O. Jimerson. Aug. 6, 2021. April 12, 2026. Location: 667.
Kings and Generals. Rise of the Sikh Empire. Kings and Generals. YouTube. Feb. 23, 2025. April 16, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?si=wNw8VpQMWlNhKCLJ&v=5wYfGQtTq2I&feature=youtu.be
National Geographic Society. Mauryan Empire. National Geographic Society. May 19, 2022. April 12, 2026. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mauryan-empire
Ogundiran, A. The Yoruba: A New History. Indiana University Press. Nov. 3, 2020. April 13, 2026. p. 7, 55-56, 95, 113, 153-154, 167-171, 193, 235.
Oramfe. File:Yoruba Oduduwa People Ethnic Flag.svg. Wikimedia Commons. Oct. 10, 2025. April 13, 2026. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Yoruba_Oduduwa_People_Ethnic_Flag.svg
Rodney, W. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Verso. (Nov. 27, 2018). April 7, 2026. p. 132-134.
Sankofa Pan African Series. The Glorious Oyo Empire. Sankofa Pan African Series. YouTube. April 11, 2023. April 16, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ld40Ny19Pc8
Shvili, J. What Is The Indian Subcontinent? WorldAtlas. April 5, 2021. April 12, 2026. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-the-indian-subcontinent.html
Silva, M. Ifá: The Ultimate Guide to a System of Divination and Religion of the Yoruba People (African Spirituality). Mari Silva. December 9, 2022. April 13, 2026. p. 5, 7, 113.
Smith, C. Was the Benin Kingdom Ever an Empire? Power, Intrigue, and the Untold Greatness of Precolonial Africa. Collins JK. Smith. September 3, 2025. April 12, 2026. p. 6, 41.
Step Map. West and Central Africa. Map depicting ECOWAS AND ECCAS. Step Map. Oct. 19, 2015. April 12, 2026. https://www.stepmap.com/map/west-and-central-africa-9DvVeYgSxw
Walker, R. When We Ruled: The Ancient and Mediaeval History of Black Civilizations. Black Classic Press. (May 1, 2011). April 12, 2026. p. 55, 342-343, 627.
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